PHARMACOLOGY

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Showing posts with label PHARMACOLOGY. Show all posts

Showing posts with label PHARMACOLOGY. Show all posts

Wednesday, September 17, 2014

Marijuana Poisoning in Pets

Marijuana Poisoning in Pets

Marijuana - Medical, Legal, and Illegal

September 2014
As of this writing, 22 more states, and the District of Columbia allow for medical use of marijuana. Two states have legalized marijuana for recreational use: Washington state and Colorado (More Information: State Laws Related to Marijuana). In other states, marijuana use is illegal.

Marijuana Toxicity in Pets on the Rise

Legality aside, veterinarians are seeing a sharp increase in the number of cases of marijuana poisoning in pets. Pet Poison Helpline has noticed a 200% increase in calls related to marijuana toxicity between 2010 and 2014. Ahna Brutlag DVM, MS, DABT, DABVT, associate director of veterinary services at Pet Poison Helpline notes:

“The trend we’ve seen in recent years involving pets and marijuana is

Friday, June 6, 2014

LABORATORY CONFIRMATION OF AFRICAN SWINE FEVER

LABORATORY CONFIRMATION OF AFRICAN SWINE FEVER

LABORATORY CONFIRMATION OF AFRICAN SWINE FEVER

Laboratory tests need to be carried out to confirm the diagnosis of ASF, because the drastic control measures are expensive and cause hardship to owners and government alike. These measures should not be put in place unnecessarily. The tests that exist are used to detect the virus itself by growing it, evidence that the virus was present (virus antigen, genetic material) or the reaction of the animal to the virus (antibodies in blood serum). In acute outbreaks of ASF, it may not be possible to detect antibodies, as the pigs die before they have time to produce them. The standard tests therefore involve detection of the virus. Tests to detect antibodies are useful for identifying pigs that have survived infection and for carrying out surveys to determine whether the disease is endemic in a country or area.

Wednesday, March 26, 2014

The treatment of bovine dermatophilosis and its effect on some haematological and blood chemical parameters.

The treatment of bovine dermatophilosis and its effect on some haematological and blood chemical parameters.

In this study, the authors evaluated parenteral treatment of zebu cattle, with naturally and experimentally induced bovine dermatophilosis, in western Sudan, using four different antibiotic treatments. In terms of recovery rate, weight gain, avoiding relapse and preventing death, gentamycin was found to be the most effective treatment, followed by a combination of penicillin and streptomycin and, finally, long-acting oxytetracycline.

Monday, March 24, 2014

Preventing Kidney Failure in Dogs and Cats

Preventing Kidney Failure in Dogs and Cats

Kidney failure in dogs and cats has many different potential causes. Though preventing kidney failure may not be possible in all cases, there are a few things that you can do to help avoid the preventable cases.
Keep Your Dog or Cat Away From Poisons that Can Cause Kidney Failure
There is a long list of poisons that can affect your dog or cat's kidneys and cause renal failure. These are some of the most commonly encountered.

Friday, December 13, 2013

Poisonous Holiday Plants

Poisonous Holiday Plants

Bright ornamental plants are a great way to dress up the house during the holidays and a dreary winter. Pet owners should be aware, however, that many of these common plants are poisonous to pets.

Toxicity ranges from mild to severe, and the amount of plant consumed determines how sick a pet may become. In general, gastrointestinal upset is the most common finding, but if enough plant material is ingested, seizures, coma or death is possible. Read this Quick Tip to familiarize yourself with holiday poisonous plants.
Naturally curious puppies and kittens and pets may want to sample some of the new-in-the-house greens. Dose is size-dependent, so puppies and kittens are most often at greatest risk for plant poisonings.

Poinsettia Plant
Many people associate the Poinsettia plant with extreme toxicity, but this is not true. In fact, it is largely an urban legend, dating back to 1919, according to David Emery, About.com Guide to Urban Legends. The sap of Poinsettias is considered to be mildly toxic/irritating, and may cause nausea or vomiting if ingested, but not death.

More about: poinsettias and pets from the Pet Poison Helpline.

Mistletoe and Holly
A couple of holiday plants, specifically Mistletoe and Holly, are considered to be moderately to severely toxic, and you should call your veterinarian or poison control center immediately for specific advice.

Lilies and Daffodils
Additionally, plant bulb kits featuring Amaryllis and other plants in the lily family, Narcissus and other plants in the daffodil family, are popular gift items at this time of year. Pet owners should be aware that these plants are very toxic for cats, and sometimes with severe symptoms of gastrointestinal signs, cardiac arrhythmias, kidney failure, convulsions and death. Daffodils are toxic to both dogs and cats, especially the bulbs.

Christmas Tree
Don't forget about the Christmas tree. Christmas trees are considered to be mildly toxic. The fir tree oils can irritating to the mouth and stomach, causing excessive drooling or vomiting. The tree needles are not easily digested either; possibly causing GI irritation, vomiting, gastrointestinal obstruction or puncture. As noted earlier, the amount of trouble depends on how much is consumed. Many times, pets don't consume mass quantities of tree material.

Common Clinical Signs Seen
Signs most commonly seen with toxic plant ingestion relate to the gastrointestinal tract: vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and sometimes excessive salivation (drooling). In some cases, such as holly berry ingestion, tremors or seizures may be seen, followed by coma and death.

Stay Safe - Watch Your Plants and Your Pets
Monitor your pet's interest in the plants. To be 100% safe, do not bring toxic live plants into your home. If unsure about a plant, look it up to check toxicity. Monitor your pet's interest in eating plants, and place plants out of reach. Check the plants for any signs of chewing or missing leaves. If unsure, plastic plants are an option (with care taken not to let those get ingested, either!).

Question: What are the signs seen with antifreeze toxicity in dogs and cats?

Question: What are the signs seen with antifreeze toxicity in dogs and cats?

Question: What are the signs seen with antifreeze toxicity in dogs and cats?

Answer: Acute cases of antifreeze toxicity (when an animal consumes antifreeze) often present as if the animal is intoxicated with alcohol. The kidneys are the target organ; antifreeze destroys the kidney tissue. This is an emergency situation, and life threatening within hours. Please see your veterinarian immediately. Success of treatment depends on quick treatment.

More About Antifreeze and What It Is Used For

Antifreeze is a syrupy liquid that is usually brightly colored; neon green or neon pink. It may be found leaking under cars in the heat of summer or after engine maintenance. Spills of this liquid are also common in winter months as car owners perform seasonal engine maintenance.

Friday, January 18, 2013

Antimicrobial Feed Additives

Antimicrobial Feed Additives

Maintenance of healthy animals requires prevention of infection by pathogenic organisms. In addition, specific alteration of a host’s microflora may have beneficial effects on animal production by alteration of ruminal flora, resulting in changes in the proportions of volatile fatty acids produced during ruminal digestion. Thus, antimicrobial compounds may improve production efficiency of healthy animals fed optimal nutritional regimens. Production-enhancing antimicrobial compounds can be classified as ionophore or nonionophore antibiotics. Antimicrobial compounds are administered in the feed at low dose rates relative to high doses required for therapeutic effects. Feed additives can be given once the rumen is functioning, although some antibiotic compounds can be fed to calves prior to this point.

Phenethanolamine β-adrenoceptor agonists

Phenethanolamine β-adrenoceptor agonists

Phenethanolamine β-adrenoceptor agonists (βAA) are chemically similar in structure to epinephrine and norepinephrine and have paracrine, neurotransmitter, and endocrine (hormonal) effects. There is a range of βAA compounds resulting from structural modifications and aromatic ring substitution. The βAA bind to β-adrenergic receptors, which have been classified into β1, β2, and β3 subtypes based on the physiologic response obtained. β1 receptors are located primarily in cardiac muscle, β2 receptors in tracheal and skeletal muscle, and β3 receptors in brown adipose tissue. In general, βAA have specificity for receptor subtypes, thereby providing specificity regarding their physiologic actions. However, there are multiple receptor subclasses in most tissues, and the relative concentrations of β1 and β2 receptors in a tissue determine the physiologic response. Muscle and adipose cells have predominantly β2 receptors. β-Adrenergic agonist use leads to an increase in muscle mass caused by increased protein synthesis with a concomitant decrease in protein degradation, and a decrease in carcass fat due to decreased rates of lipid accretion.

Steroid Hormones

Steroid Hormones

In general, the principle that dictates which type of hormone to be used is the need to supplement or replace the particular hormone type that is deficient in the animals to be treated. Females produce estrogens normally, so better results are obtained from the administration of male androgens, eg, trenbolone acetate (TBA). However, anabolic responses are obtained by giving supplemental estrogens, eg, cull cows. Estrogens should not be used in males (or androgens in females) retained for breeding purposes.

Animals Immunostimulants

Animals Immunostimulants

In contrast to adjuvants, immunostimulants do not need to be administered together with antigen to enhance immunity. They are generally given to induce a short-term, nonantigen-specific enhancement of the immune system. They appear to be most useful when treating chronic diseases in which there is good evidence of immunosuppression. They are used in the therapy of equine sarcoid, bovine papilloma, equine respiratory disease, equine endometritis, chronic skin diseases (eg, staphylococcal pyoderma or demodicosis), certain tumors of dogs and cats, and immunosuppressive viral diseases (eg, feline leukemia).

Adjuvants

Adjuvants

To maximize the effectiveness of vaccines, especially those containing killed organisms, adjuvants are commonly added. Adjuvants can greatly enhance the body’s response to vaccines and are essential if longterm memory is to be established against soluble antigens. Adjuvants work in 1 of 3 ways: 1) depot adjuvants that protect antigens from rapid degradation and thus prolong immune responses, 2) particles that effectively deliver antigen to antigen-presenting cells, and 3) molecules that stimulate immune responses by mechanisms such as signaling through toll-like receptors.

Passive immunization

Passive immunization

Passive immunization involves the production of antibodies in one animal by active immunization, followed by transfer of these antibodies to susceptible animals to confer immediate protection. The transfer of maternal antibody to offspring via the placenta or colostrum is the natural (and very important) form of passive immunization. Antisera may be produced in cattle against anthrax, in dogs against distemper, and in cats against panleukopenia. Their most important role is in protection against toxigenic organisms, eg, Clostridium tetani or C perfringens . Such antisera are known as immune globulins and are generally produced in young horses by a series of immunizing inoculations.

Adverse Consequences of Vaccination

Adverse Consequences of Vaccination

Modern, commercially produced, government-approved vaccines are generally very safe. Nevertheless, they are not always innocuous.

The more common risks associated with vaccines include residual virulence and toxicity, which may cause injection-site reactions, allergic responses, incomplete inactivation, disease in immunodeficient hosts (modified-live vaccines), neurologic complications, and, rarely, contamination with other live agents. For example, lesions of mucosal disease may be seen in calves vaccinated against bovine viral diarrhea.

Failures in Vaccination

Failures in Vaccination

There are many reasons why vaccination may fail. In some cases, the vaccine may not be effective because it contains strains of organisms or antigens that are different from the disease-producing agent. In other cases, the method of manufacture may have destroyed the protective epitopes, or there may simply be insufficient antigen. Such problems are relatively uncommon and generally can be avoided by using vaccines from reputable manufacturers. An effective vaccine may fail due to unsatisfactory administration. For example, a live vaccine may be inactivated as a result of improper storage, use of antibiotics in conjunction with a live bacterial vaccine, chemical sterilization of syringes, or excessive use of alcohol on the skin. Administration by nonconventional routes may also affect efficacy.

Administration of Vaccines

Administration of Vaccines

The simplest and most common method is SC or IM injection. This approach is excellent for relatively small numbers of animals and for diseases in which systemic immunity is important. However, local immunity is sometimes more important than systemic immunity, and in these cases, it is more appropriate to administer the vaccine at the site of microbial invasion. For example, intranasal vaccines are effective in protecting cattle against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, cats against feline rhinotracheitis and calicivirus infections, and poultry against infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease. Unfortunately, these techniques require handling each individual animal. Aerosolization of vaccines enables them to be inhaled by all the animals in a herd, group, or flock—an obvious advantage when the unit is large. This method is commonly used in the poultry industry. Alternatively, a vaccine may be administered in feed or drinking water, eg, vaccination of poultry for Newcastle disease and avian encephalomyelitis. Fish and shrimp may be vaccinated by immersion in a solution of antigen, which is absorbed through their gills. Advances in transdermal, needle-free injections make additional routes available.

Mixed Vaccines:

Because of the complexity of many disease syndromes, and to avoid giving animals multiple injections, it is common to use mixtures of organisms in single vaccines. For example, for bovine respiratory disease complex, combined vaccines are available for bovine respiratory syncytial virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, bovine viral diarrhea virus, parainfluenza 3 virus, and Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica . Mixed vaccines that save considerable time and effort are also commonly used in dogs and cats. Mixed vaccines are often used to protect animals against several different agents with economy of effort, but it may be wasteful to use vaccines against organisms that are not causing problems. In addition, when a mixture of different antigens is inoculated simultaneously, they may compete with one another. However, manufacturers have recognized this and modified vaccines accordingly. Vaccines should never be mixed indiscriminately because one component may dominate and interfere with responses to the other components.

Vaccination Schedules:

Although it is not possible to devise precise schedules for each vaccine, certain principles are common to all methods of active immunization. Newborn animals are passively protected by maternal antibodies and, in general, cannot be vaccinated. If stimulation of immunity is deemed necessary at this stage, the mother may be vaccinated during late pregnancy, timing the doses so that peak antibody levels are reached at the time of colostrum formation.

Successful active vaccination was previously thought to be possible only after passive immunity had waned. Neonatal animals with certain levels of pathogen-specific, detectable antibodies were thought to be protected against disease caused by that pathogen. However, studies in puppies born to bitches immunized against rabies during pregnancy have shown that passive antibody titers decrease significantly by 6 wk of age. In fact, when challenged with virulent rabies virus at 6 wk of age, >90% of these puppies succumbed. Similar puppies vaccinated at 7 and 11 wk of age with a recombinant vectored rabies virus were all solidly protected against rabies, even though many of them had high levels of maternal antibody when vaccinated.

This has also been demonstrated with canine distemper virus and recombinant vaccines. It is now known that an antigen can impart memory to the immune system even when passive maternal antibody is present. With the availability of recombinant vaccines, the age of and interval between vaccinations may have to be reconsidered. Because the exact time of loss of maternal immunity cannot be predicted, young animals are often vaccinated at least twice to ensure successful immunization.

The interval between vaccine doses depends on an animal’s immunologic memory. The duration of this memory depends on multiple used, such as the nature of the antigen, the use of live or dead organisms, adjuvants used, and the route of administration. Modern vaccines may induce immunity that persists for an animal’s lifetime. Other vaccines may require boosting only once every 2-3 yr. Even killed viral vaccines may protect some animals against disease for many years. Unfortunately, the minimal duration of immunity has, until recently, rarely been reliably measured. Annual revaccination has been the rule because this approach is administratively simple and has the advantage of ensuring that an animal is regularly seen by a veterinarian. It is likely that this is more than sufficient for most vaccines.

Individual animal and vaccine variability make it difficult to estimate the duration of immunity. Within a group of animals, there may be a great difference between the shortest and longest duration of protection. Vaccines may differ significantly in their composition, and although all may induce immunity in the short term, it cannot be assumed that they confer equal longterm immunity. A significant difference likely exists between the minimal level of immunity required to protect most animals and the level of immunity required to ensure protection of all animals.

Unfortunately, there is insufficient information available for most vaccines to determine minimal vaccination intervals. A veterinarian should always assess the relative risks and benefits to an animal when determining the frequency of revaccination. Owners should be made aware that protection can be maintained reliably only when vaccines are used in accordance with the protocol approved by vaccine licensing authorities. The duration of immunity claimed by a vaccine manufacturer is the minimal duration that is supported by the data available at the time of approval.

Vaccines Containing Replicating Antigens

Vaccines Containing Replicating Antigens

Attenuated Vaccines:

Vaccines that contain only killed organisms or subunits will not cause disease and are relatively easy to store. Some live vaccines, conversely, may have a limited ability to cause disease (residual virulence) in vaccinated animals. There is a risk of contamination with unwanted organisms in live vaccines. They also require considerable care in their preparation, storage, and handling to avoid temperature extremes that can affect the organisms.

As a compromise, the virulence of an organism can be reduced (attenuated) so that it is able to replicate but is no longer pathogenic. Attenuation has traditionally involved adapting organisms to unusual conditions. Bacteria can be attenuated by culture under abnormal conditions, and viruses can be attenuated by growth in species to which they are not naturally adapted. For example, rinderpest vaccine virus has been adapted to tissue culture to produce a safe vaccine. Other examples are adaptation of African horse sickness virus to mice and of canine distemper virus to ferrets, however, vaccines attenuated this way are not commonly used.

Thursday, January 17, 2013

Types of anesthesia

Types of anesthesia

Types of anesthesia

During surgery, you will be given some form of anesthesia--medication administered for the relief of pain and sensation during surgery. The type and dosage of anesthesia is administered by the anesthesiologist. When a patient faces surgery, he or she will meet with the anesthesiologist or nurse anesthetist before the procedure. The anesthesiologist will review the patient's medical condition and history to plan the appropriate anesthetic for surgery.

There are various forms of anesthesia. The type of anesthesia you will receive will depend on the type of surgery and your medical condition.

Commonly used anesthetics and analgesics

Commonly used anesthetics and analgesics

Commonly used anesthetics and analgesics

Anticholinergics
Anticholinergics are routinely used in human surgery and are strongly recommended for laboratory animals. The routine administration of atropine or glycopyrrolate before or at the time of induction for general anesthesia will protect cardiac function, and especially prevent bradycardia and cardiac arrhythmias. Anticholinergics are not routinely used in rodents, but there is no reason to omit them. Atropine, the older drug, is shorter acting and has more side effects, so glycopyrrolate is the recommended agent. In rabbits, glycopyrrolate is preferred, because a certain percentage of rabbits have atropinase, which metabolizes atropine making it inactive.

Basic elements of general anesthesia in animals

Basic elements of general anesthesia in animals

Provides overall insensitivity and unconsciousness. Basic elements of general anesthesia include:

unconsciousness
amnesia (loss of memory of pain or distress)
analgesia
muscle relaxation
diminished motor response to noxious stimuli
reversibility

Two main delivery systems are used in veterinary medicine, inhalation and injection; a brief review of common drugs follows:

Friday, September 7, 2012

KETOSIS

KETOSIS

Ketosis is a common disease of adult cattle. It typically occurs in dairy cows in early lactation and is most consistently characterized by partial anorexia and depression. Rarely, it occurs in cattle in late gestation, at which time it resembles pregnancy toxemia of ewes. In addition to inappetence, signs of nervous dysfunction, including pica, abnormal licking, incoordination and abnormal gait, bellowing, and aggression are occasionally seen. The condition is worldwide in distribution, but is most common where dairy cows are bred and managed for high production.

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